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A close run thing
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great church councils are given the credit for establishing the orthodox
Christology. They are:
á
The Council of Nicea (325)
á
The Council of Constantinople (381)
á
The Council of Chalcedon (451).
But
this account barely scratches the surface of events as they unfolded in
reality.
As
Richard Rubenstein notes, "Councils whose products were later deemed
unorthodox not only lost the 'ecumenical' label but virtually disappeared
from official Church history" ('When Jesus Became God', p.75).
In view of this revisionism on the part of the
victorious party it is worth taking a look at the long list of church
councils which resulted in the triumph of the revered Athanasian creed, upon which,
up to this day, the majority church bases its claim to 'orthodoxy'. The
background of its namesake may also come as a surprise to many. This article
will focus on the period between the first 2 councils, Nicea in 325 and
Constantinople in 381.
In this
article, terminology is key.
Arian refers to
those who sided with the Libyan priest Arius in the debate. The general
consensus which held this group together was a belief that there was a time
when the Son did not exist, that he was strictly subordinate to God the
Father and that any equality with God that the Son may have achieved was the
result of his promotion by God.
Though the Arians believed that Jesus existed before he was born as a
human being, it is unclear in what sense not only his supporters, but also
Arius himself may have understood this. 2 options present themselves: either
the Greek concept of a personal pre-existence or the old Jewish and apostolic
view that Jesus existed only as an idea in the mind of God before being
created by him (See footnote no. 5 in ÔThe Radical DeformationÕ for a fuller
comparison of these 2 perspectives, given by Adolf Harnack).
The answer to this important question is destined to remain a mystery
since all AriusÕ works were destroyed by the successful Athanasian party. It
is remarkable that such a significant figure in church history should have
been so effectively silenced. His only remaining words are those recorded by
his detractors. This calls to mind the truism of George Orwell: Òhe who
controls the past controls the future and he who controls the present
controls the pastÓ, or, to put it another way, Òhistory is written by the
victorsÓ.
Anti-Arian,
Athanasian or
Nicene refers to the party that
insisted on the interpretation of the Nicene creed championed by Athanasius.
This is the party that would eventually become Trinitarian, though the term
was not in use during these debates since the concept itself was still a work
in progress, though it had already been ventured in a prototypical form by
the Carthaginian (Mod. Tunisian) ÔfatherÕ Tertullian.
I am not an Arian and the
aim of this presentation is not to promote Arian ideas, but instead to show
that ÔchurchianityÕsÕ view of its own history is a myth. What was later
deemed ÔorthodoxÕ was not always so.
Instead, as competing views sprung up from within the church due
to its detachment from its Jewish roots, each claimed to be the authentic
reflection of the original New Testament teaching. My aim is to demonstrate
that the way the eventual winners established their claim had nothing to do
with the work of the holy spirit, truth seeking or Bible study but everything
to do with power politics.
Our trust, therefore, should not be based on any organisational
pedigree, wishful thinking or claim to ÔapostolicÕ tradition or succession.
Instead, we should carefully study history and, more importantly, the Bible
for ourselves before deciding whose claim to represent the doctrine of the
apostles is legitimate.
The councils summarised in this article have been colour
coded to reflect the [arty whose views they endorsed:
Arian red, Nicene blue, &
purple for neither/Both
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Our story begins
in Alexandria. It was the leading city in Egypt at this time and one of the great
cities of the Roman empire. It was the home ground of Athanasius, deacon and
enforcer of Bishop Alexander. Together they ran the city in a way comparable
to Al CaponeÕs Chicago, minus Elliot Ness.
Even when he was on the run or in exile, charged
with corruption and a variety of violent crimes, he continued to control his
ecclesiastical empire through trusted henchmen. It would be inaccurate to
describe such a person as Christ-like.
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Date
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Background:
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303
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The emperors Diocletian and Galerius instigate the
great persecution.
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313
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The joint rulers of the Roman empire, Constantine
and Licinius, publish the edict of Milan which ends the persecution of
Christians.
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316-324
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The two fall out and Licinius launches one last
burst of persecution in the East before Constantine defeats him to become
sole emperor.
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With the external threat removed it would only be a matter
of time now before those who professed to follow Jesus would begin
persecuting one anotherÉ
The Beginning:
The
storm was to center around the teaching of the priest Arius who denies the
divinity of Jesus, as defined by the Alexandrian pope, Alexander.
As a reactionÉ
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1
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318
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Bishop Alexander convenes
a council of bishops in order to get everyone signed up to a Ôconfession of
orthodoxy.Õ
Those who refuse are removed from their positions.
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Arius travels up
to Asia Minor and meet with the influential Eusebius
of Nicomedia (Eusebius N).
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2
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319/20
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Eusebius N convenes
a council which overturns the decision of AlexanderÕs council.
Note- This is the first time in church history that one
group of its leaders ever gathered to overturn the decision of another group.
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Arius then
travels down to Caesarea to meet with Eusebius of
Caesarea (Eusebius C).
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3
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321/22
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Eusebius C convenes
a council which also overturns Alexander.
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325
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Hosius (Constantine's trusted advisor) is sent to
Alexandria to investigate the controversy.
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4
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325
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Hosius convenes
a council at Antioch, affirming:
"One Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten
Son, begotten not from non-existence, but from the Father";
that the Son had always existed;
that he is "immutable and
unalterable";
and that he is "the image not of the will
nor of anything else except the actual existence [Gk.
ÔhypostasisÕ- follow the use of this term very closely] of the Father."
For those who did not sign up to this creed, the
first ANATHEMA in the history of church councils was attached.
(Note: Anathema =
Curse, denouncement, order of excommunication issued by a religious body.)
As a result of his refusal to sign up to this, Eusebius
C is excommunicated along with 2 other bishops.
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This council was followed in the same year by the
famousÉ
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5
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325
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Council of Nicea.
Eusebius C reads out
a creed that would be acceptable to both Arians and Anti-Arians, depending
upon its interpretation. Constantine suggests the addition of homoousios (a
non-biblical term meaning Ôof the same substanceÕ brought over from
Greek philosophy. This is the other key term to keep an eye on) to describe
the relationship of Jesus to God. Both Eusebiuses
agree.
Those who do not sign up are duly anathematised.
Arius and 2 Libyan bishops refuse and are sent
to exile.
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Eusebius C later explains that he only signed up to the
Nicene creed because he interpreted ÔhomoousiosÕ and 'begotten not
made' as meaning that Jesus was a unique creation, not that he was God.
Eusebius N says that he signed the body of the
creed, but only interpreted in an Arian sense. Also that he did not subscribe
to the anathemas on those who disagree.
The
legacy of Nicea is that, from that time onwards, the victors in religious
disputes would harness the power of the state.
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6
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328
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Council of Nicodemia, Arius is
readmitted to fellowship. Constantine himself orders that Arius be allowed to return to his church.
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Around this time bishop
Alexander dies and Athanasius rigs the
election to ensure his take over of the metropolitan bishopric of Alexandria.
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332
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Arius,
exasperated after waiting 4 years for Athanasius
to allow him to return writes to the emperor Constantine. But he oversteps
his bounds, threatening schism if something is not done.
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333
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Furious,
Constantine responds by ordering Arius'
writings to be burned and personally attacking him. But after Arius appears before him in Nicomedia to answer the
charges, the emperor relents.
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7
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335
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Council of Tyre. In response to the accusations of
Miletians persecuted by him, Athanasius is
tried for beatings, kidnappings, torture and well as arson of their churches.
After duly intimidating and kidnapping those witnesses he can access, Athanasius escapes by night to Constantinople. He
is condemned and excommunicated in his absence.
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This
time it is AthanasiusÕ turn to present
himself to Constantine protesting his innocence and asking for clemency, but his
crimes are far too serious. He is banished to Trier in Gaul.
At the dedication of the church of the holy
sepulcher, the Arian creed of Arius and Euzoius is
deemed orthodox and apostolic and they are readmitted to communion. Only 1
bishop, Marcellus of Ancyra, objects.
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8
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336
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A
council is held at Constantinople (This is not the council of
Constantinople, this does not take place until 381, see ROUND 15).
Marcellus' creed is deemed heretical. He is exiled and
replaced with a moderate Arian, Basil. Once
more, we see a creed submitted by Arius being
declared orthodox at a church council, and what today is called orthodoxy
labeled as heresy.
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Arius dies on
the eve of the ceremony to officially readmit him to the Church. The manner of
death is consistent with poisoning.
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A house divided
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337
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May 22nd, Constantine dies. The empire is
divided between his 3 sons, Constantine II, Constans
and Constantius.
According to Roman custom, all exiles are allowed to
return home. This includes Athanasius. Once
back in Alexandria, Athanasius immediately
resumes his agenda.
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At the same time the Eastern ruler, Constantius, makes Eusebius
N Bishop of Constantinople, demonstrating his sympathy for Arianism.
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9
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337
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A large council of Bishops meets in Antioch to add further atrocities
to the charges already leveled against Athanasius
including the instigation of several murders and the misappropriation of
charitable funds in order to finance his violent campaign. It orders him
deposed.
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10
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338
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Athanasius responds
by convening a council of his own loyalists.
They clear him, accuse his accusers of heresy and
label them as Ôhaters of ChristÕ.
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11
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338-339
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Eastern Church leaders hold another council in Antioch.
They uphold the verdict against Athanasius given at the council of Tyre in 335 (see
ROUND 7).
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339
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March 16th, imperial troops set out to
arrest Athanasius. All hell breaks loose and rioting
stirred up by rival mobs of his henchmen and Arian thugs continues for
several days until, on April 16th, he escapes by boat to Rome to
take refuge under the protection of the Western ruler Constans, in whom he finds a loyal supporter.
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340
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Constantine II invades ConstansÕ
territory, loses and is killed.
The empire is now divided politically between East and West and, owing
to the loyalties of the two leaders, this extends to a religious split all
the way to the top.
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12
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342
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Pope Julius calls a
council which is held at Trier. The Eastern delegation
brings a conciliatory creed in an attempt to seek compromise, but is
rejected.
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13
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343
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Council of Serdica. Results in stalemate between Arian East and Athanasian
West.
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14
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343
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Another
council is convened at Serdica. Another stalemate. This time the building
animosity brings the Arian East and Athanasian West to the brink not only of a divided
church but also a civil war within the empire.
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Ulfila the Goth is converted to Arianism and translates the Greek Bible into Gothic.
He leaves behind a legacy of Arianism among
the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Burgundians and Vandals.
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350
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Constans is overthrown and killed by general
Magnentius.
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15
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351
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Council
of Sirmium. A creed is formulated aimed at reconciling the Athanasian, Latin West to the Arian East. Both extreme Arianism
and Sabellianism are anathematised.
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There
then follow a series of councils, all of which produced Arian creeds. These
gather momentum which climaxes in the council of Rimini/Seleucia
in 359.
Throughout
this time the Nicene party continue to meet
without the emperorÕs sanction or recognition. Some of these councils were
even banned.
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353
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August
10th, Constantius defeats Magnentius
and becomes sole emperor.
There
follows a round of councils determined to pursue the agenda of the first
council of Sirmium.
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16
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353
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Council
of Arles. Produces an Arian creed.
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17
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353
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Council
of Beziers. Produces an Arian creed.
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18
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355
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Council
of Milan. Produces an Arian creed.
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355
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Constantius makes Julian Ceasar of the West.
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356
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Imperial troops are sent to Alexandria to finally
bring Athanasius to book for his crimes. Once
again, he escapes.
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19
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357
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Sirmium. An explicity Arian creed
is formulated and presented to both Eastern and Western churches as orthodox.
The terms homoousios (Of the same substance) and
homoiousios (Of like substance) to describe the relationships of the Father
and Son are banned on the basis that the concept of 'essence' is "not
included in the divine Scriptures, and it is beyond man's knowledge..."
Moreover it went on to state that:
"There is no uncertainty about the Father being greater: it cannot be doubted
by anyone that the Father is greater in honour, in dignity, in glory, in
majesty, in the very name of 'Father' for he himself witnesses... [That the
Father is greater than I - John 14:28]".
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20
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358
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Sirmium.
Produces an Arian creed.
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21
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359
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Sirmium.
Produces an Arian creed.
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22
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359
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Council
or Rimini-Seleucia.
This
is attended by over 500 bisops and is much more ecumenical than Nicea in the
sense that there is much better representation of both East (160 delegates) and
West (400 delegates). It also presents Arian
articles of faith.
Moreover, it confirms the ban on 'ousia/essence' language regarding
Father and Son, stating merely that the Son was 'like' the Father.
The Western bishops, though reluctant, are strong-armed into signing up it
this by Constantius.
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23
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360
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Council
of Constantinople. The Arian creed of Rimini-Seleucia is ratified.
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360
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February.
Julian rebels and has himself declared emperor (Augustus) of the West.
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361
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On
his way to fight against Julian, Constantinus dies.
Julian declares paganism to be the new official religion of the empire.
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363
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June.
Julian dies in battle against the Persians. Jovian, an
Athanasian becomes emperor but dies
accidentally a few months later. Valentinian takes over the West and appoints
his brother Valens as Augustus of the East.
The
Cappadocian fathers -Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of
Nazianzus- lay the groundwork for a reconciliation of moderate Arians with Athanasians.
More about this in the conclusion.
Controversy regarding the Holy Spirit begins to heat up. Speculation
concerns whether the Spirit is a person and, if so, where 'he' would stand in
relation to the Father and Son.
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373
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Athanasius dies.
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378
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Valens,
emperor of the East is killed in battle against the Arian
Visigoths.
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379
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Theodosius becomes Augustus of the East and sets about
unseating Arian bishops from the most
significant sees of the East and installing pro-Nicenes
in their place.
He
issues the nullis haeraticis (No heretics) decree forbidding anyone
who does not subscribe to the Nicene creed from occupying churches or
gathering within walls.
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24
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381
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In
order to implement this, Theodosius convenes the
council of Constantinople with 150 carefully chosen Athanasian
loyalist bishops.
It reaffirms the Nicene creed that Jesus is homoousios
with the Father.
It also declares
the Holy Spirit to be:
"the Lord and life-giver, Who proceeds from the Father, Who with the
Father and the Son together is worshipped and together glorified."
The
Nicene anathema on belief in Father and Son as separate hypostases is
removed and placed instead upon those who deny this.
Soon
advocating Arian views or possessing Arian writings would be a crime punishable by death.
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25
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381
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Bishop
Ambrose convenes the council of Aquilea. This enforces the verdict of Constantinople in the heavily Arian Balkan area, initiating a period of serious
repression throughout the empire.
From
now on, the 'barbarian' tribes of Visigoths,
Burgundians, Vandals etc. are the last stronghold of Arianism in the empire which it so often came close
to conquering.
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